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Modernization theory refers to the development processes that developing countries—or traditional communities—employ in their adaptation processes to modern technologies, cultural and social change, and adjustment to regional or global economic disequilibrium. Recognizing the far-ranging implications of increasing social and regional inequalities in the wake of colonization and decolonization in the non-European world, developing countries and Western decolonization scholars pondered the practicalities of (1) emulating the European economic growth and modernization model in a bid to successfully improve local conditions, or (2) resisting Western-style modernization attempts in favor of implementing local non-Western-style development policies and practices that aimed to reduce colonial and economic dependencies.

Modernization theory as academic social scientific discourse was popular in the West from the late 1950s until the late 1960s with increasing industrialization describing progressive change in a postcolonial world. In the decades that followed, this approach experienced a backlash as local (or hybrid) approaches gained in popularity and a Western-style modernization model was questioned. However, hints of modernization theory can still be found in the approaches of many development theorists. The notion of modernization appears to have originated in Europe between the 13th and 18th centuries—a period often referred to as the Early Modern Period.

While Max Weber (1864–1920) understood modernization mainly as rationalization, modernization in the views of many also encompasses increasing numbers of participatory citizens, the transformation of societies from agriculture to industrialization, technological change, the relevance of science for progress, and the importance of progress per se. Modernization processes and areas of development also include education (alphabetization), urbanization, and diversity of media. The Modern Era—from the 18th century onward—was marked by industrialization (19th century) and globalization (20th century).

The seemingly desirable aim of the West to ensure societal progress toward modernity often legitimized Western “assistance” (from the “Word” spread by early proselytizing missionaries and the “developing efforts” of the colonizing power/s) and “aid” (financial and credit) programs designed to further the traditional societies’ transition from agricultural to industrial nations. Such an approach at the same time implied a so-called backwardness or inferiority of these traditional societies—justifying the Western model as the only possible alternative. These processes of modernization are often understood as a universal development trajectory, starting with colonization and ending with decolonization. To this end, it was often the colonial power that introduced these “modern” or Western advancements.

Due to the challenges these new technologies and knowledge have presented to the power and influence of local elites and the traditions of the local populations, the new ways have not always been enthusiastically welcomed. A further reason for this lack of enthusiasm was that on occasion the Western powers used force to change the traditional ways of the locals in order to (1) set the colonized country on a Western modernization course, and (2) direct (often exploit) the local resources according to the economic and strategic needs of the colonizers. Nonetheless, often in the face of unremitting local resistance, local elites and those interested in advancing in the colonized nations took advantage of these new learning, economic, and social opportunities, not only in the interests of personal development but also to minimize the perceived structural gap between the development level of their homeland and that of the colonizing nation.

One prominent proponent of embracing these new Western ideas and innovations as positive stimulation for his country’s own culture and economy was Burma’s (today’s Myanmar) King Mindon (1808–78). In an attempt to modernize and reform his country, the king introduced and promoted Western technological innovations in this former colony of the British Empire. Similar developments could be observed in other colonized countries that had experienced or were experiencing the technological and military superiority of the foreign powers, the “modern” lifestyle, the enlightenment, the independence, and Western notions of democracy.

Some of the ideas introduced by colonizing powers were more welcome than others, given that they were not necessarily perceived as purely “Western.” Prominent persons such as the first president of an independent India, Jawaharlal Nehru, for example, saw education as central to the successful development of a country. As such, these ideas and reforms were on the whole easier to implement in the social reforms of the developing countries. This represented a departure from a colonial mindset: Now there was recognition of the degree of empowerment that would enable the developing countries themselves to effect and control (social) change. Thus the colonizer’s role often took the form of change agent in the independence movements of former colonized countries.

Failures And Alternatives

The failure of modernization theory in the late 20th century, palpable in the ongoing and persistent underdevelopment, poverty, and failure of many developing countries to catch up to—or participate in—the world economy, resulted in dependency theorists arguing that disequilibrium still existed. The genesis of the more contemporary disparities, so the argument goes, can be found in the ongoing exploration of developing nations by capitalist nations. Today, this is perpetuated not by military but by financial means, e.g., through credit and development aid. Apart from pernicious microstructural problems, progress in the postcolonial world was also inhibited by diverse sociopolitical problems and erratic development stages: Africa faced huge economic challenges and debt with the introduction of democracy; in the Islamic world, Samuel Huntington’s well-documented perceived “clash” between Eastern and Western values became apparent; east Asia experienced fluctuations of economic boom and financial decline; and Latin America saw the rise of new social movements, military regimes that had their own ideas about the direction and nature of modernization.

Concomitant with the trajectory of decolonization, the number of less developed countries (LDCs) grew. However, these newly independent nations were more heterogeneous than homogenous—economically, culturally, and politically. Some of these countries were resource-rich, others resource-poor. Any concept of presumed unity of these less developed countries, envisaged, for example, in the Bandung Conference (1955), remained utopian. In the decades following decolonization, some of these countries showed significant development, both economically and socially. Nonetheless, many LDCs continued to experience structural disadvantage, continued to be dependent upon their former colonizing power. Furthermore, often within the poorer countries the social and economic disparities continued to exist. In such cases, an economic divide between the rural and urban areas became evident.

Decolonization trends and development strategies are often linked with the term modernization, generally understood as a “world-historical transition toward progress.” Modernization was first introduced mainly as a Western concept. However, soon the question of alternative models rose. The successful rise of many of Asia’s emerging countries, and the role of Confucianism, for example, held great promise. It clearly demonstrated that the developing and developed countries do not necessarily experience the same sequence of modernization.

Bibliography:

Ian Buruma, God’s Dust: A Modern Asian Journey (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1989);
Irene Gendzier, Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World (Westview, 1985);
Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003);
Samuel Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs (v.72/3, 1993);
Stephen Krasner, Structural Conflict: The Third World Against Global Liberalism (University of California Press, 1985);
Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (Macmillan, 1958);
George Mavrotas and Mark McGillivray, Development Aid: A Fresh Look (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009);
Dietmar Rothermund, Companion Decolonization: The Routledge Companion to Decolonization (Routledge, 2006);
Brian C. Smith, Understanding Third World Politics: Theories of Political Change and Development (Indiana University Press, 2003);
Alfred J. Watkins and Michael Ehst, Science, Technology, and Innovation: Capacity Building for Sustainable Growth and Poverty Reduction (World Bank, 2008).

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