English as a Second Language Essay ⋆ Essays on Controversial Topics ⋆ EssayEmpire

English as a second language (ESL) is a multifaceted term associated with several aspects in the area of English language teaching and learning. Broadly speaking, it refers to the use or study of English by speakers of other languages who are permanently or temporarily residing in English-dominant countries, such as Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, and the United States. In a narrow sense, it refers to the field of study in applied linguistics that brings together aspects from theoretical linguistics, language acquisition, and teacher education; it is a discipline with its own theories, methodologies, and approaches for teaching and learning.

ESL is one of the possible ways to refer to the learning and teaching of English to native speakers of other languages. Due to the range of meanings subsumed under ESL, many other terms and acronyms have been coined over time, including English as a second or other language (ESOL), teaching of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL), teaching of English as a second language (TESL), and English language teaching (ELT). In the past few years, however, the tendency has been toward an acknowledgment of the increasing presence of multilingual speakers for whom English becomes their third, fourth, or fifth language. As a result, English as an additional language (EAL) has been replacing ESL as an umbrella term in the latest professional literature.

ESL learners can be found at all levels. From prekindergarten to graduate studies, programs aim at meeting the needs of their particular population of language learners. ESL programs typically fall into three main categories: ESL in elementary and secondary schools, ESL in higher and professional education, and adult ESL. Regardless of the type of model, successful ESL programs always take into account the elements that influence the process of English language teaching and learning. Crucial factors to consider are that learners have different needs, learning abilities, levels of education, and literacy, and they vary depending on age, socioeconomic background, and sociolinguistic variables.

Elementary and Secondary Schools

In K-12 public schools, educators identify students whose native or home language is not English as English language learners (ELLs) or limited English proficient (LEP) students. These students include both foreign-born and U.S.-born students reared speaking a language other than English. ELLs can receive either traditional ESL instruction, which has English as the subject matter, or content-based ESL instruction, which focuses on teaching English through grade-level content. Neither of these program models should be confused with bilingual education programs, which involve the use of the students’ first language to provide academic instruction.

Traditional ESL programs treat the learning of English as an isolated topic, that is, devoid of content area subject. In high school, ELLs have separate ESL class periods. In elementary school, however, ESL programs generally include pull-out classes. Students leave their regular classroom daily to receive 40 to 50 minutes of English language instruction in self-contained classrooms with limited or no first language support, while their classmates continue with their regular schedule. Although pull-out programs are the most implemented type of ESL instruction, research shows that they are the least effective. This approach provides students with English language instruction, but students miss some of their regular class time to receive such instruction. To avoid this loss of instructional time, some school districts have implemented inclusionary or push-in programs. These programs bring the ESL teacher into the regular classroom to provide English language instruction as the classroom teacher covers the grade-level content. Evaluation of this new approach is limited, but initial observations indicate it may be even less effective than pull-out programs. Coordinating the activities of two teachers with two distinct foci teaching together in the same classroom seems to be a highly complex enterprise.

In content-based ESL programs, ELLs receive content area instruction based on the students’ level of English language proficiency. English language development (ELD) programs are geared to ELLs with low levels of English language proficiency. ELD programs use content as a means to acquire English, focusing on developing language skills. ELLs with intermediate levels of English language proficiency have a wider range of options. These include programs such as structured English immersion (SEI), specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE), the cognitive academic language learning approach (CALLA), and sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP). These programs allow the development of language skills as students learn content area knowledge in a more understandable way. In high school, ELLs are in classes taught by teachers with dual certifications— subject area and ESL. In primary school, content-based instruction is self-contained and leads to mainstream-ing, that is, a gradual shift of students to all-English classes, as they become fully proficient in English.

Higher and Professional Education

Most higher education institutions have ESL programs for their international, resident, and U.S.-born ELLs. These programs concentrate on general language skills needed for general academic work across disciplines as well as learning and study skills. Courses range from academic reading and writing to oral presentation skills. The majority of the undergraduate students are U.S.-born and long-term U.S.-resident ELLs who, despite graduating from U.S. high schools, are still in the process of learning English. These students are known as generation 1.5 students because their cultural world and everyday experiences place them in the world of both the first and second generation of immigrants. Depending on the institution, these undergraduates take ESL classes as a prerequisite to the general English requirement or as an optional course in lieu of general English courses.

Graduate students, on the other hand, are mostly international students who need to develop further their written or oral communication skills in English to meet the language demands of their academic discipline. These students have an array of ESL classes specifically designed for the language requirements of their disciplinary community. These courses, which range from oral communication skills for teaching assistants to dissertation writing, are housed in English for academic purposes (EAP) programs—one of the divisions of English for specific purposes (ESP). The primary focus of ESP programs is ESL courses tailored to the specific learning and language use needs of students, most of whom are educated adult learners. In addition to EAP, ESP programs include English for occupational purposes (EOP) programs, which concentrate on the teaching and learning of either English for workers in non-professional contexts (vocational English) or English for professionals, such as English for business and economics, English for science and technology, English for medical purposes, and English for legal purposes.

Adult Education

Adult immigrants and refugees interested in learning ESL find themselves taking courses in adult education programs. Located in community centers, schools, and churches, these programs respond quickly to the changing needs of fluctuating immigrant populations and diverse adult learners. Most of these students are working adults who need to acquire basic skills in English. Others are preparing for citizenship or trying to complete a general education diploma. Classes are typically multilevel, meet in the evening or on weekends, and have open enrollment to allow students to register and drop the class at any point in the term. Although ESL is crucial in facilitating the adjustment to the new environment and integration to U.S. society, great challenges still remain to be overcome in terms of program design, teacher preparation, instructional strategies, and learner assessment.

Bibliography:

Chamot, Anna U. and J. Michael O’Malley. 1994. The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. White Plains, NY: Addison-Wesley Longman.
Echevarria, Jana, Mary Ellen Vogt, and Deborah J. Short. 2007. Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model. 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Haley, Marjorie H. and Theresa Austin. 2004. Content-Based Second Language Teaching and Learning: An Interactive Approach. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Harklau, Linda, Kay M. Losey, and Meryl Siegal, eds. 1999. Generation 1.5Meets College Composition: Issues in the Teaching of Writing to U.S.-EducatedLearners of ESL. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hawkins, Margaret R. 2005. “ESL in Elementary Education.” Pp. 25-44 in Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, edited by E. Hinkel. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hinkel, Eli. 2005. Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Thomas, Wayne P. and Virgina P. Collier. 2002. A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students’ Long-Term Academic Achievement. Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence, University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved March 29, 2017 (http://cmmr.usc.edu//CollierThomasExReport.pdf).

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