Supermax Prisons Essay ⋆ Criminal Justice Essay Examples ⋆ EssayEmpire

Over the past 30 years, U.S. correctional institutions have been scrutinized for the practice of confining inmates to supermaximum, or supermax, prisons. Supermax prisons house the most violent and disruptive inmates at the highest security level. Inmate movement and interaction with others is extremely restricted. The main purposes of these prisons are to segregate and control violent and unruly inmates, to protect other inmates and prison staff, and to reduce prison violence.

Since the 1980s, supermax prisons have grown throughout the United States. As a response to prison overcrowding conditions and increased violence among incoming prisoners, states began to build supermax facilities. Traditionally, supermax prisons were designed to house the “worst of the worst.” They were originally built to house inmates convicted of extremely violent crimes, and for those inmates who engaged in violent or aggressive behavior toward other inmates or staff while incarcerated in the general prison population. Although the national number of inmates housed in supermax prisons is unknown, estimates range between 20,000 and 30,000 prisoners.

The design of supermax prisons varies by state. Some states have separate supermax units within existing prisons to house violent and disruptive inmates. Names for these units vary and include: control units, administrative segregation units, solitary confinement, and special housing units (SHU). Other states developed stand-alone supermax facilities to house the most violent inmates within a particular state (e.g., Pelican Bay State Prison in California). Supermax facilities are unique in their highly secure architectural design and surveillance technology that limits human interaction.

In most supermax prisons the central characteristic is solitary confinement. Solitary confinement conditions are extremely restrictive and often characterized as total isolation. Inmates are confined to a cell for 22 to 23 hours a day and have little to no communication with other inmates. Inmates are served meals in their cells and are not permitted to engage in congregate dining—a common practice enjoyed by the general prison population. Inmates rarely have opportunities to work, attend religious services, or participate in rehabilitative programs. Prisons that do provide rehabilitative programs to supermax inmates often allow one-on-one programming with a staff person positioned behind a protective barrier. When prison staff must enter a supermax cell, inmates are handcuffed and placed in leg shackles as a safety precaution. Inmates who refuse to exit their cells are typically removed by force.

Although the original purpose of supermax prisons was to house the most violent prisoners, nonviolent inmates often end up in supermax facilities. In some jurisdictions, inmates who violate administrative rules will be placed in supermax for disciplinary purposes. Prisoners in need of special protection from the rest of the inmate population may also be placed in supermax. Prisons with gang problems will use these facilities to isolate influential gang members from the general inmate population.

Considering the varying populations housed in supermax, the length of time served in these facilities varies. When supermax units are used to house inmates for disciplinary reasons the length of stay is often short term. Inmates housed in stand-alone supermax prisons are often incarcerated for much longer periods of time (including many years). Most facilities control and monitor inmate conduct for a period of time until behavior improves. As behavior improves an inmate gradually moves to an environment with fewer restrictions than supermax. Depending on the risk an inmate poses to the rest of the prison community, some prisoners will remain in supermax indefinitely.

Deterring Violence

One of the core goals of incarceration is to deter (or prevent) further acts of criminal behavior. This is often discussed on two levels: specific and general deterrence. At the specific (individual) level, the punishment of incarceration should deter an individual from engaging in future crime due to exposure to deprivations during incarceration. At the general deterrence level, other people will be prevented from engaging in crime if they are aware of the potential punishment. Deterrence is considered one of the justifications for using supermax.

Supermax, it is argued, is an administrative strategy designed to control and deter violence. In theory, inmates exposed to supermax conditions will refrain from engaging in future misconduct to avoid returning to supermax. Conversely, inmates in the general population view supermax as a threat to their already limited freedoms, and to prevent being placed in supermax they will follow prison rules and refrain from using violence and aggression. Whether the use of supermax actually works to reduce incidents of violence and other misconduct is unknown.

Impact of Isolation

Understanding the prison experience in supermax can best be understood through the work of Gresham Sykes (The Society of Captives, 1958). As Sykes described, inmates experience multiple deprivations, known as “pains of imprisonment.” These pains include five deprivations: liberty, goods and services, heterosexual relationships, autonomy, and security. While all inmates experience these deprivations to a degree, prisoners confined in supermax facilities/units undergo the most severe deprivations. The lack of human contact from outside society and the prison community creates extreme isolation conditions. The lack of interaction, limited exposure to natural sunlight, and minimal exercise create extreme sensory deprivation. Inmates exposed to extended periods of solitary confinement may suffer long-term psychological effects (e.g., mental deterioration, depression, anxiety, irritability, and paranoia). Whether the justification of using supermax as a management strategy to deter violence overrides the negative impact on inmates’ mental health continues to be debated.

Supermax Criticisms

The use of supermax as a management strategy has received much criticism. The most controversial issue is whether the conditions within supermax are considered cruel and unusual punishment and in violation of the Eighth Amendment. By law, prisoners are afforded certain constitutional rights, including minimum living conditions, access to health care, mental health treatment, and freedom of religious worship. The living conditions in supermax have been argued to be below legal standards and in violation of the Eighth Amendment. Even though the conditions include extreme sensory deprivation, higher courts ruled that the conditions of isolation are not a violation of inmates’ constitutional rights. The main argument is that supermax conditions (i.e., isolation) are necessary to protect the safety and security of those that live and work in prison.

Even though the use of supermax is constitutional, the impact of isolation on mental health is a major area of concern. Supermax conditions impact the mental, emotional, and physical health of those confined to these prisons/units. Critics of supermax argue that the long-term isolation can be psychologically harmful to inmates’ mental functioning. The length of time confined in supermax varies considerably, however some inmates spend years in solitary. As stated earlier, inmates in long-term isolation experience a range of mental health problems as a result. Furthermore, inmates with preexisting mental health problems may end up in supermax. These inmates are at considerably greater risk of mental deterioration. While it is unconstitutional to house inmates with mental health problems in supermax, some of these inmates still end up there.

Another ethical concern is the overuse of supermax for nonviolent inmates. Supermax is commonly used as an administrative segregation strategy in many prisons. The capacity to keep everyone safe from harm is a legal and administrative challenge that prison officials deal with on a daily basis. Inmates who fail to report to work, refuse staff orders, or talk back to staff may end up in supermax. Additionally, vulnerable inmates in need of protective custody from the general inmate population may be placed in supermax. How common and widespread these practices are is unknown. When thinking about the use of supermax for these populations, a question to consider is: What other strategies could prison administrators use as an alternative to supermax?

Finally, an important consideration is one of public safety. Inmates are typically released back into the general prison population after serving time in supermax. There is little research on whether these inmates engage in more violent, or disruptive, behavior upon return to the inmate population. Equally concerning is the fact that some inmates are released straight to the community from supermax. While the evidence on whether these inmates are successful once released is limited, some research does find that individuals released to the community after serving time in supermax have higher recidivism rates than supermax prisoners who spend several months in the general inmate population prior to community release.

Bibliography:

Lovell, D. L., C. Johnson, and K. C. Cain. “Recidivism of Supermax Prisoners in Washington State.” Crime and Delinquency, v.53 (2007).
Pizarro, J. M. and R. E. Narag. “Supermax Prisons: What We Know, What We Do Not Know, and Where We Are Going.” Prison Journal, v.88 (2008).

Pizarro, J. and V. Stenius. “Supermax Prisons: Their Rise, Current Practices, and Effects on Inmates.” Prison Journal, v.84 (2004).

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