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The English word monasticism derives from the Greek word monos, meaning “alone.” Those who rejected the world to embrace the worship of God and obedience to his commandments without compromise were soon grouped into a communal residence, called in Greek monasterion, and later in English monastery; the inhabitant of a monastery was a monachos, the source of the English word monk.

Asceticism, which originally referred to the physical training of athletes for sports contests, in the Christian context means the training of the passions—physical and mental—for the purposes of withstanding the temptations to sin present in this world and focusing completely on God. Asceticism is not confined to monasticism; in the early church forms of asceticism were incumbent on all Christians. Asceticism is also but one part of the monastic life, which includes other dimensions, including prayer, charity, the cultivation of virtue, and education in the Holy Scriptures and other edifying Christian literature.

Judaism and other Greco-Roman religions active during the first centuries of Christianity also had movements in which a group separated from society to follow religious precepts unfettered by the demands and temptations of society. However, the attempts to find in any religion of late antiquity the precursors of Christian monasticism are at best inconclusive. After the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire came to an end, monasticism became understood as a form of martyrdom, in which the monk became “dead to the world” to pursue a life focused entirely on God.

Monasticism in the forms transmitted to the Middle Ages appeared in the third and fourth centuries c.e. Monasticism was a spectrum of living arrangements between the anchorite, or solitary, who lived alone, and the coenobite, who lived in a community (coenobium), under a single abbot and a single rule. Many shades in between the two developed, and every monk or nun would have experienced both extremes to some extent, either through temporary arrangements as part of his or her training or due to the rhythm of life that might be an alternation of elements of both extremes. Monasticism in all of its forms was probably practiced to some extent throughout the Christian world. The limitation of our sources has led to a focus on Egypt, Syria, and Palestine as the earliest centers. Even if there were monastic communities in the West before the fourth century, the forms of monasticism that became standard in the West are based on Eastern models.

In Egypt the major figures in the third and early fourth centuries are Anthony (c. 251–356) and Pachomius (292–346). The Life of St. Anthony attributed to the fourth-century bishop of Alexandria, Athanasius, is less a biography of the saint than an anti-Arian work intended to show the roots of “orthodox” monasticism. The extant letters of Anthony reveal concerns different from those of the later fourth-century Life. Anthony is credited with the founding of eremitic or anchoritic solitary monasticism, though there are clear signs in the Life of Anthony itself that he was not the first in this regard.

Pachomius is credited with having established coenobitic, or communal, monasticism. He founded two monasteries, according to the Life of St. Pachomius, in Upper (southern) Egypt. At his death he had perhaps 3,000 monks under his supervision. Not to be neglected is Shenoute (Shenouda) of Atripe (334–450 c.e.), who was the abbot of the White Monastery at Sohag, also in Upper Egypt. Shenoute is considered to be the greatest of all writers in Coptic, the language of the Egyptian church outside Greek-speaking Alexandria and the direct descendant of the language of the pharaohs.

Monasticism in Syria also developed contemporaneously to that in Egypt. Syriac Christianity from its inception distinguished itself by its strict asceticism. Baptized Christians were celibate. Syriac Christianity also developed by the mid-fourth century the institution of the Sons and Daughters of the Covenant, baptized Christians who dedicated their lives to renunciation and the service of the local bishop and church. These Christians continued to live in close proximity to their families of origin, not infrequently under the supervision of their parents.

By the early fifth century canons regulating the life of the Sons and Daughters of the Covenant were issued alongside canons regulating the lives of monks, indicating that the former was not merely a stage of development to coenobitic monasticism in Syria and Mesopotamia. Also distinctive for Syriac monasticism were the stylites, or solitaries who dwelled atop a pillar. The most famous of these was Simeon the Stylite (388–459), a monk in northern Syria (today Qa‘lat Sem‘an) whose counsel on all matters was sought by Christians and non-Christians alike on a variety of practical matters.

The third early center of monasticism was Palestine, where Hilarion (293–371), who was active in his native Gaza, is portrayed as one of the outstanding early leaders. His disciples, such as Epiphanius of Salamis (Cyprus), established monasteries throughout Palestine. In Anatolia (modern central Turkey) the earliest known monastic foundations are those of Eustathius of Sebasteia (300–377), whose influence on the Cappadocians was particularly important. One of these, Basil the Great, bishop of Caesarea, became a central figure in the organization and spread of monasticism in the East and West. He composed a monastic rule (c. 358–364) that championed the coenobitic way of life over that of the solitary one. In various forms the Rule of Basil had an unparalleled influence on monastic life in the East and West.

Among those who introduced monastic currents from the East into the West were John Cassian and Benedict of Nursia. There is evidence from writers such as Gregory, bishop of Tours, and Jerome that some forms of monasticism had developed in the West. However, the introduction of Eastern monastic influence is due largely to John Cassian, who after visiting Egypt founded two monasteries in Marseilles around 415. Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–540), influenced by the Rule of Basil, composed a rule that became the classical expression of coenobitic monastic organization in the West. Monasticism spread early to the Celtic lands in Britain and Ireland; in the latter, monasticism was fundamental to the shaping of the church as well as of “secular” Christian life. The Rule of Columbanus (543–615) exerted extensive influence on the organization of monasticism in Ireland and Great Britain as well as in Gaul.

References:

The Life of Anthony, by Athanasius of Alexandria. Translated by Tim Vivian and Apostolos N. Athanassakis, with Rowan A. Greek. Kalamazoo, MI: Cisterician Publications, 2003;
Harmless, William. Desert Christians: An Introduction to the Literature of Early Monasticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004;
Chitty, Derwas J. The Desert a City: An Introduction to the Study of Egyptian and Palestinian Monasticism under the Christian Empire. Oxford: Blackwell, 1966;
Leyser, Conrad. Authority and Asceticism from Augustine to Gregory the Great. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000.

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