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In the debate over defining civil wars, factors taken into account include the territory where the conflict occurs, the parties involved, and the casualty rates. According to James D. Fearon, a civil war is a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups aiming to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies. According to Fearon, if the threshold for a conflict to be labeled a civil war is at least one thousand killed during the fighting, approximately 125 civil wars had occurred by 2007 since the end of World War II (1939–1945). Scholars such as Nicolas Sambanis identify other criteria. This can make it difficult to examine why such conflicts occur, and to identify the best resolution methods and hopefully prevent them. It can also cause controversy over the legitimacy of international intervention.

Occurrence Of Civil Wars

Civil wars have occurred around the world but have been more common in some regions. From 1950 to 2001, developing Asia (South and East Asia and Oceania) experienced a persistently high incidence of war. Latin America experienced much conflict in the 1980s, as did the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, although most of these conflicts were short. The Middle East and North Africa have had a stable and high incidence of civil war since the late 1960s; moreover, the incidence of violent conflict in sub-Saharan Africa has increased. Until the 1980s, Africa had a below-average incidence, whereas now it is comparable to Asia and the Middle East and much higher than Latin America. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, sixteen major armed conflicts were active internationally in 2008. For the fifth consecutive year, all of the conflicts were intrastate, though troops from another state aided one of the parties in four conflicts.

Widespread casualties and violation of human rights are common features of civil wars. Casualties are particularly common among the civilian population and those most vulnerable, such as women, children (who are often recruited as fighters), and the elderly. Moreover, fleeing refugees are vulnerable to attack, disease, and malnourishment. Human rights are frequently violated as social mores against such crimes are weakened and law and order break down. This breakdown can provide the opportunity for violations to occur unhindered and without fear of punishment. Human rights may also be systematically violated, as terror and brutality are used as another means to win dominance and ensure the population’s compliance. The violation of human rights is graphically shown by the war in the former Yugoslavia and conflict in Rwanda during the 1990s. The disastrous impact of civil war continues to be felt long after the fighting has subsided or ended. Higher rates of mortality often remain, for it takes time to rebuild the country’s damaged infrastructure and the economy. War remnants such as mines also continue to cause casualties, as in Cambodia where conflict occurred from 1970 to the 1990s.

There is debate over whether the conflict in Iraq since the 2003 overthrow of President Saddam Hussein by U.S. led coalition forces is a civil war, but there clearly have been widespread casualties and human rights violations. Fearon has defined the conflict as a civil war, and a January 2007 U.S. National Intelligence Estimate said that the term accurately described key elements of the conflict, including the hardening of ethno-sectarian identities, changes in the character of violence, ethno-sectarian mobilization, and population displacements. This debate continues, as does the violence; two bombs struck Baghdad in October 2009, killing at least 155 people, the deadliest attack in over two years. The Iraq Body Count, a nongovernmental organization with a public database including deaths caused by U.S.-led coalition forces and paramilitary or criminal attacks by others, estimated that as of February 4, 2010, there had been a minimum of 95,412 civilian deaths since U.S.-led coalition forces entered Iraq. As of February 16, 2010, there had been 4,697 coalition deaths. Overall though, violence had declined since peaking in early 2007.

Many groups have committed human rights abuses in Iraq. Basic rights to food and shelter have been threatened too, with many people forced to live in very poor conditions. Although there have been some positive developments, such as provincial elections in February 2009 followed by July 2009 parliamentary and presidential elections in the Kurdistan region, there is fear as to future stability and the protection of human rights after the United States withdraws.

Explaining Civil Wars

Various factors can contribute to the outbreak of war. Scholars such as Barbara F. Walter have examined the recurrent nature of civil war. Once a country has experienced civil war, the threat of more conflict is elevated. One reason for this is that the same factors causing the initial war often remain. Indeed, these factors might have become stronger as a result of the war’s destruction and casualties. The threat of ongoing conflict is illustrated in Angola where continuous conflict has occurred since independence in 1975.The presence of key political institutions that provide adequate and appropriate avenues to exercise rights, express opinions, and address grievances is vital in reducing the likelihood of war. Similarly, a central government that can adequately provide the basics of good governance is needed. However, this is not the case in many countries. The term failed nation-state indicates a dangerous post–cold war development—the breakdown of law, order, and basic services in a number of multiethnic states. This phenomenon is often accompanied by conflict, as in Somalia.

The issue of ownership of resources often arises when the resources are spread unevenly, and this can cause conflict. According to Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, the plundering of natural resources can finance opportunistic rebellions, and resources can motivate conflict. In particular, various scholars, including Paivi Lujala, have examined the link between diamonds and civil war. In addition, divisions such as those based on ethnicity, region, and religion can cause tension and, ultimately, conflict if the different groups clash and cannot resolve differences peacefully. The potentially destructive nature of ethnic divisions is illustrated by the conflict in Nigeria from 1967 to 1970. More recently, there has been fighting between the Shiites and Sunnis in post–Saddam Hussein Iraq. State and insurgency leaders alike can inflame and exacerbate tensions that lead to war. The key role of a leader in the outbreak and continuation of war is shown by the influential role taken by Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic in the conflict that engulfed the former Yugoslavia’s during the 1990s. Finally, assistance to factions from external actors can exacerbate conflict. External involvement frequently occurred during the cold war when it was used as a tool by the superpowers and their allies to promote their rival strategic interests, as shown by Afghanistan’s experiences in the late 1970s and 1980s.

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