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Fundamentalism is notoriously difficult to define, as countless political science commentators have found. Part of the difficulty lies in the use of the term in a pejorative sense to describe those whose religious or political opinions lie outside the norm. Few groupings that are labeled as fundamentalist would willingly describe themselves as such. The 1992 Merriam-Webster Dictionary describes fundamentalism as either “an extreme Protestant position characterized by the belief that the Bible is a verbally accurate recording of the word of God” or “adherence to traditional beliefs of any kind.” This definition incorporates many who could not be considered fundamentalist; however, in these two concepts lie both narrow and broad definitions of the term. The narrow definition traces fundamentalism to its Christian origins in the early twentieth century and has been described by George Marsden (1980) as “militantly anti-modernist Protestant evangelicalism” (p. 4). The broad definition seeks to expand the term to include other faith and no faith groupings that possess similar characteristics and ways of operating. Jeffrey Hadden and Anson Shupe (1989) provide a useful definition for this broader definition, describing fundamentalism as “a proclamation of reclaimed authority over a sacred tradition which is to be reinstated as an antidote for a society that has strayed from its cultural moorings” (p. 111).

Christian Fundamentalism

In its narrow definition, fundamentalism refers to the movement in the United States and Britain that developed out of the teachings of Princeton Theological Seminary and a series of pamphlets published between 1910 and 1915 called The Fundamentals, which called Christians to return and adhere to a strict and literalist interpretation of an inerrant Bible, which emphasized belief in the deity of Christ and the virgin birth. The movement grew in opposition to prevailing trends in the church, inspired by German higher criticism and scientific discovery of modernism and liberalism. Those who clung to the fundamentals of a literal interpretation of the Bible saw themselves as the guardians of true Christianity against nominal Christianity and nonbelievers. They considered themselves a faithful remnant in a fallen world that had begun to infect the church. They spent the following six decades avoiding political involvement and cooperation with mainstream churches while building their own churches, schools, colleges, theological and evangelistic training centers, and publishing houses. In the 1970s the Row v. Wade decision on abortion and attempts to bring about the Equal Rights Amendment spurred fundamentalists to act politically in defense of what they perceived to be an attack on traditional values. They reemerged as a potent political and religious force in the 1980s with tens of millions of adherents. During the following three decades, the movement was to emerge as a dominant force in both American Christianity and the Republican Party.

Characteristics Of Fundamentalism

The defining characteristics of Christian fundamentalism can also be used to understand fundamentalisms more broadly. Marty and Appleby’s comprehensive “Fundamentalism Project” in the 1990s identified nine ideological and organizational characteristics of fundamentalism. Among five ideological characteristics, they note, first, fundamentalists’ tendency to react against secular modernization and the perceived marginalization of religion. Second, attention is drawn to the selectivity of those aspects of tradition and modernity fundamentalists choose to reshape, reject, or embrace. Although modernism might be rejected, modernity with its technological progress is embraced to spread their message. Third, fundamentalists tend to have a Manichean worldview, a dualism that sees the world in absolutist terms of good and evil. Fourth, there is a belief in the inerrancy and absolutism of sacred texts. Finally, fundamentalists believe in the idea of millennialism and messianic, that there was and/or will be a golden age when they will be rewarded and nonbelievers will be punished. The four organizational characteristics include, first, the idea of an elect or chosen membership. Second, this membership needs to be separate and distinct from other members of society. Third, fundamentalist groups are typically male dominated and led by a charismatic or authoritarian figure; dissent is not tolerated and leads to schism rather than compromise. Women’s roles tend to be subordinate and conform to traditional roles in a patriarchal society. Finally, adherents’ behavior is carefully prescribed and includes dress codes, drinking and eating, the type of entertainment that can be enjoyed, and the relationships that can be entered into.

Fundamentalism Today

Marty and Appleby’s work is helpful in identifying the commonalities shared by different fundamentalist movements. Although the term remains contested, it is in common usage and as such is useful in designating groups that share such features. These ideological and organizational characteristics are shared by Christian, Jewish, Islamic, Hindu, and other fundamentalists. They possess different sacred texts and leaders but adopt similar approaches in claiming inerrancy for their interpretation of such scriptures and reacting against the marginalization of religion in a globalized era. They are comfortable using modern technology to disseminate their worldview while simultaneously attacking selective Enlightenment values. Convinced of their own right standing with their God, they adopt a dualistic view of the world and eagerly await the time when they will be rewarded for their obedience and faithfulness. Members of fundamentalist movements are set apart from others, made to believe they are special and different from the majority of the society in which they live. Accordingly, they may act and dress differently to identify themselves with other group members and to differentiate themselves from fellow citizens. The strong charismatic leadership of such movements retains control over members and shapes the ideological agenda, mobilizing support on behalf of the specific issues on which they decide to concentrate.

Fundamentalism has developed to become a feature of the modern political arena in ostensibly secular states such as the United States, India, and Turkey as well as more overtly religious countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, where no clear separation of religion and state exists. Fundamentalists have formed political parties that have gone on to govern, such as the Bharatiya Junata Party in India or Adalet ve Kalkinma Partisi in Turkey; others have infiltrated existing parties including the Republican Party in the United States.Yet other fundamentalists, such as al-Qaida, have eschewed the democratic process and pursued violent means to achieve their political and religious objectives. Others including Hamas and Hezbollah pursue violent, political, and social welfare means to advance their religious/political objectives. The wars and acts of terrorism of the early twenty-first century have thrust fundamentalism to the fore of political science discourse, a long way from its rather quieter beginnings a century ago.

Bibliography:

Almond, Gabriel, Emmanuel Sivan, and R. Scott Appleby. “Fundamentalism: Genus and Species.” In Fundamentalisms Comprehended, edited by Martin Marty and R. Scott Appleby, 399–424. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Barr, James. Fundamentalism. London: SCM, 1977.
Hadden, Jeffrey, and Anson Shupe. “Is There Such a Thing as Global Fundamentalism?” In Secularization and Fundamentalism Reconsidered, edited by Jeffrey Hadden and Anson Shupe, 109–122. New York: Paragon House, 1989.
Marsden, George. Fundamentalism and American Culture. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1980.
Marty, Martin, and R. Scott Appleby, eds. Accounting for Fundamentalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Fundamentalisms and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Fundamentalisms and the State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
Fundamentalisms Comprehended. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Fundamentalisms Observed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Sandeen, Ernest. The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism 1800–1930. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.