Socrates Essay ⋆ Political Science Essay Examples ⋆ EssayEmpire

Socrates (469–399 BCE) was a classical Greek philosopher whose thought had a profound influence on his field. Little is known about his early and middle years, although according to ancient tradition, he worked as a stonecutter. The fact that he served as a helot (heavily armed foot-soldier) in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) indicates that during the early years of the war he was roughly middle class, because helots were required to provide their own armor. At some time during this period, Socrates began the mission of moral reform for which he became famous. He passed his time examining and arguing with his fellow Athenians, subjecting them to his elenchus (“test” or “refutation”) in order to inquire into the moral subjects that interested him and to inspire them to care for virtue and knowledge. Socrates’ followers included not only Plato, but Alcibiades and Critias, both of whom later betrayed the Athenian democracy. Possibly because of such notorious connections, in 399 BCE Socrates was accused of impiety and corrupting the young. Different versions of his defense speech are extant. In Plato’s Apology of Socrates (c. 395), Socrates defiantly defends his entire life, describing himself as a great benefactor to the city—a gadfly, who stings it to keep it awake—and claims that the Athenians would harm themselves in killing him. In spite of—or perhaps to some extent because of—his defense, Socrates was convicted, sentenced to death, and executed.

Exclusively an oral teacher, Socrates himself left no record of his teaching. At some point, however, his followers began to write down his conversations. From this practice arose the Socratic dialogue as a literary genre, examples of which survive in works of Plato and Xenophon. Irresolvable conflicts between the main sources of information regarding Socrates have given rise to the Socratic problem, an effort to distinguish the actual historical figure from the many depictions of him put forth by varied authors and interpreters. Recent scholars generally place the greatest weight on the depiction of Socrates in Plato’s Socratic dialogues, which are consistent with Aristotle’s account. The brilliant, ironic personality depicted by Plato embodies the practice of philosophy at its best and most morally serious. In Phaedo (1871), Plato describes Socrates as “the best and wisest and most righteous man” then living.

As expressed in Plato’s Apology, Socrates claimed to be ignorant, but to be superior to other Athenians in recognizing his own ignorance, and so being motivated to seek the moral knowledge he felt he lacked. In spite of this self-description, Socrates held definite moral views, as expressed in the so-called Socratic paradoxes, that virtue is knowledge and all wrongdoing is due to ignorance. Because Socrates also believed that virtue is both necessary and sufficient for happiness, he willingly allowed himself to be executed rather than commit injustice— including escaping from prison to avoid execution.

Although on one occasion Socrates secured a place on the Athenian Council and fought unsuccessfully against a popular measure he viewed as illegal, he generally avoided Athenian politics. Although apparently without a developed political philosophy, he was highly critical of Athenian democracy. He decried the emotional instability of the populace and is depicted by Plato as a vigorous opponent of the Sophists— teachers of the rhetorical arts that political figures used to manipulate the mob. Socrates also objected to the Athenian practice of assigning political office by lot, as this placed government in unqualified hands. Still, he was devoted to Athens, rarely venturing outside its limits, and dedicated his life to improving his fellow citizens. Although his mission was carried on in a private capacity, in Plato’s Gorgias (c. 385 BCE), Socrates describes himself as the only Athenian who attempted “the true art of statesmanship,” because his actions were always aimed at what was best instead of what was most pleasant.

Bibliography:

Benjamin, Anna S., trans. Recollections of Socrates and Socrates’ Defense before the Jury of Xenophon. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965.
Burnet, John. “The Socratic Doctrine of the Soul.” Proceedings of the British Academy 7 (1915–1916): 235–259.
Cooper, John M., ed. Plato: Complete Works. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997.
Guthrie, William K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy, Volume III: The Fifth-century Enlightenment. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
Vlastos, Gregory. Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991.

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